Thursday, November 28, 2019

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act

Introduction A couple of decades ago children with learning disabilities were rarely identified. As the years passed by, the number of children with learning disabilities has been increasing rapidly. At the moment almost half of the children with disabilities comprise of children with learning disabilities (Douglas Lynn, 2006, p. 93).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More That is why the United States came up with the Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA) which has been used for over thirty years to identify children with learning disabilities. According to this act, identification of children with learning disabilities was conducted by the use of IQ test. However, the gradual increase in the number of individuals with learning disabilities led to the disapproval of this method. It was necessary to modi fy this law and in the year 2004 President George Bush signed into law the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, an improvement of the Individuals with Educational Disabilities Act (Douglas Lynn, 2006, p. 93). The main aim of this paper is to analyze this law and its application in response to interaction. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act This new act has got almost the same elements as the previous law apart from one thing; the use of response to intervention (RTI) in identifying students with learning disorder instead of IQ test. With this new method early identification of children with educational failure is achieved unlike in the previous method. According to Lynn (2007) RTI offers practical solutions to problems which IQ tests failed to address since it helps struggling students to recover faster (p.13). This is because RTI distinguishes those students who perform poorly because of disabilities from those students who perform poor ly as a result of inadequate action. As a result of this separation and early identification school performances tend to improve and the number of children with learning disabilities is minimized making this programme to be a successful tool in the process of learning disability identification. Response to Intervention (RTI) Response to intervention is the method that is used by the Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act to detect students with learning disabilities. This method uses a variety of steps to identify the children with learning disabilities and has procedures which are necessary to help them academically. To identify children with learning disabilities, a subgroup of underperforming students is first identified. This is done in the first month of a new academic year by using the test scores of the previous year or by giving a test to all the students and use this results. From these results one can select underperforming students by either selecting the students who score below the 25% mark or those who score below the average mark. This procedure should be done in all grades.Advertising Looking for research paper on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Once this group has been identified then their responsiveness to education is monitored over a period of time. In order to find out whether there is progress in these students, periodical high stake tests are conducted. The students who score above a certain percentile mark (20% for example) exhibit sign of improvement while those who score below the expected mark should be subjected to a more vigorous training either inside or outside the classroom. The progress of these students can be assessed as done earlier during the first tier. According to Douglas and Lynn (2006) it is advisable to conduct the comparison of underperforming students at local and national levels. Weekly progress of these students should also be conducted (p .94). Intervention in RTI Intervention in RTI is achieved by several methods. The first form of interaction aims at detecting early problem of reading. This ensures that no child is lagging behind as others progress. As a result RTI is an essential aspect of the reading first policy in the current school curriculum in the United States. RTI has got different levels making it to be multitired. As a student moves from one level to another the training becomes more intense. This ensures that necessary intervention and attention is given to the students in a bid to help them improve academically. Another intervention conducted in RTI is problem solving. Practitioners prefer the use of standard protocols in problem solving. RTI has got up to four different levels of problem solving (Ikeda and Gustafson, 2002). In level one the teacher works hand in hand with the parents of the student to solve his/her academic problems. In the second level the teacher works together with his colleagues i n the school to identify the problem of the student and select which measures to implement. Failure of this leads to level three which involves professionals from Heartland staff who use behavioral strategies to solve the problems of the student. If this fails then level four commences and it entails special education assistance. All through this process the student responsiveness to the programme is the driving force that determines which method should be applied. Standard treatment protocol is also used in problem solving. However, unlike in problem solving where each student was subjected to a different method in standard treatment control all the students are subjected to similar methods for a specific period of time and then evaluated.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Those who respond positively to the trea tment are returned back to class while those who respond negatively move to the second tier to where more intense training is administered. Those who respond well to the second tier training are returned back to class. Those who respond poorly are suspected to have disabilities and further investigations commence. Reasons for RTI preference over IQ The incorporation of identification of students with learning disabilities started in the 1970 and IQ tests were used for the purpose of identification. During that time only 2% of the students were identified with learning disabilities. The number however increased to around 6% in 1999-2000 (Douglas Lynn, 2006, p. 96). Conducting this programme is quite expensive (about three times the cost of education a normal child). Therefore as a result the government ended up spending a lot of money running the programme. The increase in number of students with learning disabilities over time also made the IQ method not to be seen as productive. T he IQ method has been criticized since there is no standard procedure to compute it, its size and which tests are to be used to determine the IQ of an individual. Due to these inconsistencies the IQ failed to distinguish correctly students with learning disabilities from low academic achievers. That is why the government developed the new Act which uses RTI in identifying learning disabilities. RTI has managed to find solutions to the problems which came up as a result of using IQ. Conclusion Since the 1970`s the US government has been using IQ as a means of identifying students with learning disabilities. However, this programme has proved not to be effective since the number of students with disabilities increased with time. That is why the government introduced RTI to solve the shortcomings of the IQ method. References Douglas, F., Lynn, F. (2006). Introduction to Response to Intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quartely, 93-99. Web. Ikeda, M., Gustafs on, J.K. (2002). Heartland AEA 11’s problem solving process: Impact on issues related to special education (Research Rep. No. 2002–01). Johnston, IA: Heartland Area Education Agency 11.Advertising Looking for research paper on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Lynn, F. (2007). Special education faculty pioneer Responsiveness to Intervention. Web. 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Sunday, November 24, 2019

Communication Effectiveness in the Management of Virtual Teams

Communication Effectiveness in the Management of Virtual Teams Introduction Various organisations currently operate at the global business interface that is characterised by intense competition, dynamic changes in consumer needs, emerging trends of new products, changing technology, and different cultures.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Communication Effectiveness in the Management of Virtual Teams specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such businesses strive to maintain operations that are geared towards striking a balance between the influences of the above factors. Most multinational businesses usually establish subsidiary branches in numerous countries across transnational borders with a view of expanding their market bases by attracting international consumers. For this reason, implementation of virtual teams of different employees from culturally diverse origins becomes a crucial interplay in the involved businesses since they facilitate communication amongst diverse consume rs, employees, and subsidiary firms. Currently, many businesses are adopting virtual management whereby managers do not necessarily need to maintain physical contact with their employees. The research proposal aims at investigating effective communication and motivation techniques in the management of in virtual teams across transnational borders. Background According to Huang, Kahai, and Jestice (2010), virtual team management is a phenomenon that surpasses the limitations of time and space boundaries that are experienced in visual interactions. Misunderstanding of cultural differences, marginalisation, language barrier, team disunity, and mistrust are some of the issues that are associated with virtual team management. For instance, the GE Energy, an electricity management company in Atlanta recently faced an increasing number of diverse cultural workforces in its areas of operations. This situation led to the development of programs such as the GE Connect and WebEx to provide an insight into ‘Working in Virtual Teams’.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The GE Connect and WebEx software adds a phone tab to the GE WebEx connects. The system can command the computer to manage call dials, history, waiting indicators, media, and instant messaging among others. Employees who do not understand common communication languages such as English among other dialects can successfully interact with their colleagues using the system to improve their communication. This situation is an implication of a need to conduct more research on the techniques and solutions to the challenges that arise from the management of virtual transactional teams due then unavailability of a common language. Literature Review A virtual team refers to a group of individuals who interact using internet platforms and profiles rather than maintaining face-to-face comm unication (Chen, Chen, Chu 2008). On the other hand, a transactional virtual team is an organised group of persons who carry out various activities that are related to trade despite time, boundaries, and space limitations (Chen, Chen, Chu 2008). Virtual teams have become increasingly important for transnational companies. They provide a framework for addressing challenges that result from modern rationalised organisations owing to the distribution of workforce. Capece and Costa (2009) posit that the advancement of technology and globalisation has led to an increased flexibility in organisations as they seek to gain competitive advantages over the rival companies. The premise of virtual teams is to address the location and accessibility of employees due to the unrelenting workforce demographics in the modern world. As a result, the embracement of such teams helps organisations to gain access to diverse expertise and quality-improvement systems whilst promoting workplace interaction s.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Communication Effectiveness in the Management of Virtual Teams specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this proposal, qualitative methods such as interviews, focus groups, and participant observations were deemed suitable for the research in question. The interviews will be used to gather demographic information that will be used to design parameters such as the average age, level of the awareness of cultural diversity, and comparison statistics among others (Creswell 2013). The methods will be guided by respondent characteristics such as feelings, beliefs, perceptions, and ideas among others. Such aspects will guide the researcher to design appropriate interview schedules. Information concerning the communication techniques and patterns of the organisation will be gathered through textual analysis and archival research (Rawbone 2015). Both purposive and snowball sampling techniques have been deemed appropriate for the selection of the participants. Purposive sampling will ensure the maximisation of rich information while the snowballing technique will help the researcher reach the respondents by asking them to recommend their colleagues (Punch 2013). Regardless of the perceived effectiveness of virtual teams in the management of contemporary organisations, various problems have been identified. At the outset, the physical dispersion of persons around the world leads to the development of diversity issues that hinder smooth communication. Diversity management has been deemed one of the most significant challenges in running of organisations. Leaders who have been habituated to the outmoded organisational frameworks encounter a number of management difficulties. The organisation of the new teamwork also requires the leaders to assess the ability of the traditional management approaches to meet the necessities of the virtual programmes. This tendency to shift fr om the traditional to new forms of leadership poses an enormous risk to the organisation.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Overton, Hills, and Dixon (2007) also affirm that language barrier is a crucial problem that leads to communication shortcomings in the event of adopting virtual teamwork management. There is a tendency to interpret context differently as individuals perceive ideas, values, and beliefs uniquely. For instance, Overton, Hills, and Dixon (2007) reveal that the difference between high and low context cultures has been evidenced to interpret information differently. Embracing Effective Communication and Motivation in the Management of Virtual Teams A research conducted by Overton, Hills, and Dixon (2007) in the UK on the integration of effective communication techniques into organisational activities revealed that it significantly improved the delivery of a range of skills such as leadership, management, and understanding of foreign languages among others. It was affirmed that the techniques were applicable to the management of virtual teams to foster the learning of different languages for effective communication. According to Nash and Kallenbach (2009), effective communication tools can be used efficiently to ensure proper management of the virtual teams. This technique can also be used to increase outreach programmes to rural communities or places that are hard to reach within a given time such as companies with international branches. The only issue of concern raised in the study was that most of the adults were unaware of such techniques being embraced in current systems of management (Aragon Johnson 2002). Companies that support effective communication significantly lead to the improvement of employee motivation. Employees who strive to understand other languages make the use of effective communication and other resources that are based online. Literacy is among the key strengths that are created through electronic communication. The web can provide an excellent means of developing skills in the wake of digital technology (Mishan 2005; Wagner and Konzma 2005 ). According to Scott and Wildman (2015), most businesses use virtual teams to grasp larger market shares besides overcoming geographical barriers (Scott Wildman 2015). Bachmann (2006) attested that communication enables people of different cultural backgrounds to develop shared models besides creation of group identities. It is highly believed that collective perceptions of other people, living environments, information, or the world create a mutual understanding among the members of particular groups. A survey that was completed by researchers such as Yip and Dempster (2005) identified that communication via the internet compelled many companies to run virtual teamwork. These studies failed to mention the aspect of embracing cultural diversity and understanding among employees since it was limited to electronic communication (Davis, Fletcher, Absalom 2010). Technology plays a critical role in conveying information between individuals through virtual organisations (Siebdrat, Hoeg l, Ernst 2009). Virtual teams with diverse cultural backgrounds can be managed efficiently using robust cybernetic information channels with a view of diminishing the ethnic, racial, and/or geographical gaps that exist between the members of the teams. Dekker, Rutte, and Van den Berg (2008) recommended that companies should implement up-to-date technology with a view of establishing and maintaining virtual teams. Language complexities, cultural misunderstanding, and marginalisation always affect communication. Lockwood (2015) recommended a need for training staff in communication, leadership skills, and different cultural issues that affect the management of teams across transnational borders. Embracing Clear Understanding of Different Cultures for Coexistence in Virtual Team Environments Culture is a combination of values, norms, beliefs, and orientations that exist in a given society. They are transmitted from one generation to the next (Leidner, Alavi, Kayworth 2010). On the ot her hand, cultural diversity is a mix of people having different national and linguistic characteristics. According to Erez (2010), culture is a conception that is passed from one generation to the next. It comprises aspects such as beliefs, art, knowledge, laws, customs, and habits that are exhibited by a person within a particular society. Most people use culture as the backbone for communication and develop knowledge about particular attitudes towards life. Earley and Mosakowski (2000) posit that respect for cultural diversity brings about the appreciation of heterogeneity in the values and norms of people from different backgrounds. This situation brings people together either face-to-face or virtually. Wildman and Griffith (2015) mention that businesses are currently faced with challenges of virtual team management that affect efficiency. They recommend that leaders should be knowledgeable on tools for exploring cultural diversity. The leaders must be well conversant with inter personal cues, cultural differences and diversity inclusion. Lastly, they attested that virtual communication and mutual leader-follower relationships are paramount to the active contribution towards improved business performance (Wildman Griffith 2015). Globalisation has resulted in increased virtual teams across transnational borders. Intercultural communication and interaction are essential due to the ever-increasing globalisation that has led to the movement of labour across national, regional, and continental boundaries. Embracing management with clear communication technology has led to the emergence of virtual communities who share information on different cultural values, beliefs, norms, and languages among other characteristics (Zakaria, Amelinckx, Wilemon 2004). A research that was conducted by Alpaslan et al. (2004) revealed that poor understanding of other people’s cultures and languages accounted for inadequate performance in cybernetic communication. This situ ation led to misunderstanding and distrust amongst individuals and groups in the organisations. However, the creation of forums to educate the employees on embracing different cultures proved to be efficient in appreciation of virtual teams (Whatley, Zaitseva, Zakrzewska 2009).The study does not clearly indicate how communication should be implemented in such situations. Motivation, Good Leadership, and Trust Motivation is also a crucial factor that has been proved efficient in addressing issues that arise from the management of virtual teams. Individual enthusiasm is an aspect that enhances morale and liveliness in communication. Virtual interactions are enhanced through motivation with a view of alleviating glitches that arise from monotonous environments (Holton 2001). A deeper comprehension of subjective motivational factors should be considered because each person gets motivated in different ways. Different cultures also have features that derive individual motivation. Such fa ctors are paramount to the formation of sound virtual teams that are prepared with a broad base of knowledge about their cultures and those of other individuals. Cifuentes and Murphy (2000), posit that other factors such as attention, confidentiality, satisfaction, and relevance among others are components of the sources of motivation. If they are embraced appropriately, they can improve a person’s engagement in virtual discussions that close the gap between varying cultural teams. An individual belief in the ability to achieve personal goals is significantly improved where organisations encourage motivation and autonomy. However, the researchers have not highlighted communication as a crucial element for the achievement of such objectives; hence, it ensures that the individuals are satisfied and open-minded. Maintenance of enthusiastic workforce ensures relevance and improved confidence (Cifuentes Murphy 2000). This situation can be achieved through active involvement in le arning or projects that encompass the performance of employees from different cultural backgrounds. Both employees and managers should be encouraged to show enthusiasm for intercultural activities with a view of acquiring various competencies that practiced by diverse groups. However, communication is crucial for the achievement of such objectives; hence, the parties involved should be in a position to speak a common language (Cifuentes Murphy 2000). Leadership is another aspect that has underpinned efficient control and management of virtual teams. According to Malhotra Majchrzak (2004), virtuous leadership in an organisation ensures the definition of clear goals and role in an attempt to realise quality outcome. Shachaf and Hara (2006) revealed that virtual team leadership helped in the efficient management of employees in organisations where diversity inclusion was highly regarded. Another aspect of leadership is ensuring the provision of mentorship and clear definition of resp onsibilities amongst diverse team members. Collaboration refers to the engagement and participation of people in a group to solve an issue based on a mutual agreement (Bjà ¸rn Ngwenyama 2009). Miloslavic, Wildman, and Thayer (2015) have attested that virtual teams are becoming popular in work environments. They result in the development of new techniques that are in line with the demands of the global market. This situation leads to increased work efficiency. However, leaders are cautioned to consider issues that can arise due to cultural differences and to embrace collaboration among the members of virtual teams to get the success of the organisation. Communication is crucial in bonding the employees; hence, robust communication channels should be developed in various entities that embrace virtual team management (Miloslavic, Wildman, Thayer 2015). Shachaf and Hara (2006) posit that leadership and trust are two factors that must go together when handling employees in virtual tea ms. People have unique and vast views, cultural differences, and technical skills among other factors. The researchers have failed to show how leaders engage employees in commitment to instil a sense of trust. Therefore, leaders should ensure that individuals who are included in the virtual teamwork show commitment to duty by instilling a sense of trust in them with a view of winning their attention (Shachaf Hara 2006). Jarvenpaa, Shaw, and Staples (2004) also attested that trust that was built among virtual team members and their leaders led to efficient work processes and quality outcome due to improved motivation, collaboration, and collective problem solving strategies that dependent on trust. It was perceived that trust reduced indistinctness and doubt in social viewpoints. A problem of how the trust is build is evident from such comments since effective leadership and management must be embraced. Carter et al. (2015) in his article on Leadership for global virtual teams for t he facilitation of team processes attested that leadership through collaborative interaction is paramount to the efficient management of businesses at the global level. As a result, global organisations require the development of virtual teams through effective management. They have attested that technology in communication has been used successfully to link virtual teams through proper leadership. They have further mentioned the importance of understanding cultural background of employees, nationalities, team dynamics, and communication technology to address issues that arise from virtual team management (Carter et al. 2015). Carte Deines (2013) also attested that team leadership results in improved networking among individuals who are both within and outside the teams. Performance and team development are fundamental functions of decent leadership (Bell Kozlowki 2002). A primary challenge that virtual teams experience is the realisation of efficiency during the implementation of concerted goals. The researchers have not elaborated the realisation of efficiency can be achieved. A better way of ensuring that leaders accomplish such tasks is by the sound institution of self-management and performance standards among the various parties that are involved in teamwork (Hunsake r Hunsaker 2008). Effective leaders should ensure that trust exists together with increased and efficient goal setting techniques that take into account the expectations of employees. They should also give room for continuous feedback to allow competencies and encourage cultural appreciation. Furthermore, Gazor (2012) posits that wise leaders use physical meetings to solve various challenges. However, in situations where geographical differences hinder communication, teleconferencing, and videoconferencing offer the best solutions. In conclusion, the essay has reviewed various pieces of literature on the possible communication solutions to the issues associated with virtual teams in the ef fective management of organisations. Leadership roles are paramount to the appropriate handling of productivity issues that arise in diverse physical work environments. Communication has been seen as a crucial factor in the management of virtual teams across transactional borders. To ensure effective implementation of information communication and technology networks amongst employees in different physical locations, an understanding of diverse cultural values, consumer behaviour, and dynamic innovation is highly encouraged. Statement of the Problem Although virtual team management has ensured smooth running of global businesses, a plethora of challenges is still encountered. One of the primary challenges that are experienced is technology disparity. A sizeable gap is seen in the advancement of technology between the developed and developing nations. A research that was conducted by the United Nations Economic and Social Council (2006) explicated a number of ways such as stimulation of international technology transfer and learning among others than can be adopted by developing countries to narrow the gap. While many companies appreciate the introduction and embracement of virtual teams in their organisational systems, many questions have been left unresolved. How do individuals of different languages and from varied culture share a common goal, understanding, and knowledge without face-to-face meeting? How can such people develop trust among themselves? What kind of technology should the managers use successfully among these people? Such questions among others need to be addressed since they form the basis of the challenges that arise from the management of virtual transactional teams. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) encompasses communication equipment that is used in chatting sites, e-mail, websites, teleconferencing, and videoconferencing among others (Capece Costa 2009). The interconnection between various employee groups in diverse geogr aphical landscapes is greatly hindered due to poor communication and communication channels (Song Liu 2013). The world’s population appreciates the improved development of electronic information transfer that has ensured smooth organisation and distribution of duties (Cheshin et al. 2013). Improved technology has resulted in the development of robust communication means that have ensured quick response to various organisations, which have embraced decentralisation due to the existence of virtual teams. Nowadays, teams can conform and establish collaboration through electronic communications channels that are remotely located. However, there is still a need to exploit the varied opportunities that arise from international interactions. Although communication channels such as teleconferencing and videoconferencing among others means exist, other issues such as cultural diversity, understanding of different languages have not been fully addressed (Piccoli, Powell, Ives 2004). The contemporary world is characterised by fast development virtual teams with varied cultural, personal, and functional origins. If such topographies are not handled effectively, they can cause problems such as conflicts, disunity, and mistrust in organisations. The differences can be heightened due to the existence of geographical differences, poor communication, and lack of motivation, misunderstanding, and failure to appreciate the significance of cultural diversity and movement of labour across transnational boundaries (Piccoli, Powell, Ives 2004). Virtual teams can only perform well if proper management that embraces proper communication, motivation, appreciates cultural diversity, and creates collaboration based on the common goals of virtual teams among others. A majority of the studies have revealed that communication is the sole factor for the efficient management of virtual teams (Piccoli, Powell, Ives 2004). For instance, Taha, Ahmed, and Ale Ebrahim (2009) upheld such views by mentioning that advanced communication technology has enabled international business leaders to manage teams in distant work environments. The development of technology, especially in the twenty-first century, is a timely framework for the passage of information from one party to another by teleconferencing, videoconferencing, e-mailing, social networking, and online chatting. Although the aforementioned underpinnings are highly regarded, virtual team management requires a consideration of factors such as cultural diversity, respect, trust, and motivation among other aspects (Taha, Ahmed, Ale Ebrahim 2009). The researchers failed to mention how to incorporate such factors in communication to solve issues of virtual transactional teams. Incorporation of such factors in communication promotes the realisation of a common goal and understanding of the values, beliefs, and attitudes of diverse cultures. Another problem that should be addressed is how a company will ensure appr opriate handling of the above-mentioned communication factors. According to Geister, Konradt, and Hertel (2006), educating employees on the use of the videoconferencing or teleconferencing techniques alone is not satisfactory move towards the realisation of harmonious virtual teams. For instance, the existence of communication channels in organisations that embrace virtual teamwork does not necessarily mean that the employees have a common language that enhances the flow of information (Abbott, Gilbert, Rosinski 2013). In such circumstances, how does the company resolve the underlying virtual team issues? Other research works indicate that motivation among the employees results in the apt formulation of solutions in diverse work environments. Geister, Konradt, Hertel (2006) attested that group motivation is significant in the creation of collaborative workforce where individuals come from different cultural origins. This set of circumstances enables them to identify and appreciate various values, beliefs, and attitudes among other aspects of the cultures of their colleagues. The researchers limited their studies to virtual team motivation and never embraced factors such as effective communication and understanding of cultural diversity to solve problems of virtual transactional teams. According to Keller (2008), motivation encourages attention, confidence, relevance, and individual satisfaction. However, the research holds that enthusiasm only serves as a solution to managerial problems that are associated with virtual teams rather than examining the effects of other elements such as cultural diversity. It proofs that there is limited information on the methods (effective communication and embracing cultural diversity) to resolve the poor understanding of cultural differences that exist in virtual transactional teams (McArdle Anderson2001). Research Purpose The purpose of the study is to investigate effective communication, motivation, and understanding of cultural diversity to solve issues that arise from virtual team management across transnational borders. Hypothesis H0: Embracing effective communication, motivation, and understanding of cultural diversity do not help in solving problems that arise from the management of virtual teams across transnational borders. Main Research Question Does effective communication, motivation, understanding of cultural diversity solve the problems that arise from the management of virtual teams across transactional borders? Study Objectives To determine whether the proper implementation of effective communication, motivation, and understanding of cultural diversity solve problems that arise from the management of virtual teams across transactional borders To examine various motivational and leadership techniques that leads to collaboration among individuals of different cultural origins in the virtual teams Limitation of the Study The study will focus on the investigation of effective communic ation and understanding of cultural diversity to solve the problems that arise from the management of virtual teams across transactional borders. It will be limited to qualitative research design and analysis. The results will be used to illustrate a problem of communication, poor motivation and misunderstanding of cultural diversity in virtual teams to ensure that people understand the problem. The results will then be used to create awareness embracing effective communication and understanding of different cultures in organisations that practice virtual teamwork rather than the implementation of the plans. As a result, the findings will be based on the generalisation of the available information. Variables Various characteristics that will be measured include dependent variables such as the type of motivation, communication, trust, interactions, and leadership among others. The independent variables will cover the issues that are associated with virtual teams such cultural diversi ty among others. Methodology Research Design and Sampling plan Since the study focuses on investigation of effective communication, motivation and understanding of cultural diversity to solve communication problems in virtual teams across transnational borders, the research will entail a qualitative research design (Mahoney 2010). The nature of the research proposed guarantees investigation techniques thus its findings will be used to illustrate how effective communication can the understanding of cultural diversity in virtual teams are essential. It will be conducted in the various companies in the USA. Managers of the selected companies will be identified to seek contact information that will be useful in the facilitation of the research. Data will be obtained from the focus groups and interviews among other qualitative methods. Interview schedules will be subjected to the employees and managers of selected global companies that have organised virtual teams. Sample Size and Sampli ng Strategy 25 respondents will be selected randomly from each of the multinational companies. 20-percent of them will be from the managerial levels. The four companies to be included will be identified through secondary sources of data such as journals and articles on multinational co-operations based in the USA. The contacts their managers will be contacted using information available about their contact managers or phone numbers indicated in the secondary data. Research Instruments The interview schedule will be semi-structured to ensure detailed information capture. The respondents are expected to understand the both the instruments easily since they will be written in simple English (Cooper Emory 2002). Respondents’ feelings, beliefs, perceptions, and ideas will also ensure that the researcher uses the interview schedules. Some of the questions that will feature in the interview include the following. What do you understand by the term electronic communication? Does th e company embrace robust communication techniques? Does your company use electronic communication in educating virtual employees on common language for your business? Rationale for the Selection The USA was selected as the study area because the country has many multinational companies that embrace diversity inclusion and virtual team management. Rich information on the communication problems will be obtained from multinational companies that have established numerous subsidiaries in different geographic locations worldwide. This strategy will set a framework for studying the management of virtual teams in diversity. The chosen sampling design is also appropriate since the study will focus on the qualitative data. The research after evaluation will further analyse the implementation of motivational techniques and effective communication in ensuring effective communication among virtual teams. Data Analysis for Demographic Variables The demographic variables that will be considered in the study include age, education, virtual learning environment, blackboard usage, video and audio podcasts, and cultural background among others. The variables will be analysed using univariate analysis or tables. The results will be easily compiled using the SPSS version 21. The univariate analysis will indicate details about age distribution frequencies, central tendencies (mean, mode, and median), and dispersions such as range, standard deviation, and variance (Bradley, Curry, Devers 2007). Data Analysis for Study Variables Inferential statistics will be used to elaborate then inferences from the study. Tests that will be conducted include the t-test, Chi-Square test, and one-way ANOVA among other multivariate methods (Bradley, Curry, Devers 2007). Ethics for the Research This research will be conducted after seeking permission various multinational companies that will be selected for the study. The respondents will be issued with consent forms to participate willingly in th e study. Upon their acceptance, they will be engaged in the research (Miller et al. 2012). As aforementioned, the research will seek to investigate effective communication and motivation techniques in the management of in virtual teams across transnational borders. It will focus on seeking ways to alleviate the challenges that are encountered in the management of virtual teams with a view of increasing organisational efficiency. Review of Five Journal Papers relevant to the Topic ‘Leadership for Global Virtual Teams: Facilitating Teamwork Processes’ by Carter, Seely, Dagosta, De-Church, and Zaccaro In their article, Carter et al. (2015) posit that competition, complexities, and structures of organisations in the global scene have undergone tremendous change. However, with increased and sophisticated means of communication, linking virtual teams has become easier. This situation has resulted in effective management of business operations. Carter et al. (2015) further aff irm that managers must ensure a deeper understanding of cultural backgrounds, nationalities, communication technology, and team dynamics to resolve hitches the that arise from the management of virtual teams (Carter et al. 2015). ‘Structuring Successful Global Virtual Teams’ by Miloslavic, Wildman, and Thayer According to Miloslavic, Wildman, and Thayer (2015), teams have become paramount to efficient production in organisations. They further attest that teamwork results in increased the work handling capacity. It also provides new techniques that align with the demands of the global market. However, Miloslavic, Wildman, and Thayer (2015) posit that leaders should consider issues that can arise due to cultural differences. Resourceful collaboration among the members of virtual teams is required for the success of any organisation. However, communication is a crucial factor in creation and maintenance of bonds among employees. Robust communication channels should be deve loped by implementing advanced technological systems. Therefore, managers should ensure that methods such as videoconferencing and teleconferencing are implemented for success in management of virtual teams (Miloslavic, Wildman, Thayer 2015). ‘Leading Global Teams Means Dealing with Different’ by Wildman Griffith Wildman and Griffith (2015) attest that the current global business is faced with challenges that affect efficient virtual team leadership. Leaders must have the right knowledge and tools to explore cultural diversity with a view of alleviating challenges that are related to the embracement of virtual teams. Wildman and Griffith (2015) claim that leaders should be aware of interpersonal cues, diversity inclusion, and appreciation of the world’s diverse cultures. Factors such as virtual communication and mutual leader-follower relationships are paramount to the active contribution towards improved business performance (Wildman Griffith 2015). ‘Cu lture, Communication, and Conflict: A Review of the Global Virtual Team Literature’ by Scott Wildman Scott and Wildman (2015) view virtual teams as the most modern techniques used in various organisations to capture large market shares, meet vast needs of consumers, and overcome geographical barriers. In a research that was conducted prior to publishing of the article, Scott and Wildman (2015) found that the primary issues that dominated their findings regarding virtual information included cultural diversity, effective communication, and conflict management. Scott and Wildman (2015) mentioned that teleconferencing, video conferencing, and e-mailing were the feasible solutions for communication issues among the virtual teams. Understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity also play a critical role in the management of virtual teams (Scott Wildman 2015). ‘Virtual team management: what is causing communication breakdown?’ By Lockwood This article holds that flexibility in organisations and ICT improvement resulted in effective management of virtual teams in global businesses. Lockwood (2015), states that most executives experience management drawbacks due to language, cultural, and geographical barriers. Language complexities, cultural misunderstanding, and marginalisation are threats to the development of collaborative virtual teams. As a result, Lockwood (2015) affirms that there is a need for training staff in communication, leadership skills, and different cultural issues that affect the management of teams across transnational borders. Appendix Time Schedule for the Activities Based on 13-week project the following timeframe is scheduled for various activities Activity Time and Date Draft proposal to supervisor Early May 2015 Submission of the proposal Early May 2015 Approval of proposal End of May 2015 Delivering request letter to research office Early June 2015 Data collection and completion Early June to end of Ju ne 2015 Data analysis and completion Early July 2015 Review findings with supervisor Early July 2015 Review final draft report with supervisor Late July 2015 Submit final report to supervisor Early August 2015 References Abbott, G, Gilbert, K Rosinski, P 2013, Cross-cultural working in coaching and mentoring, John Wiley and Sons, Southern Gate, UK. Aragon, S Johnson, S 2002, ‘Emerging roles and competencies for training in effective communication environments’, Advances in developing human resources, vol. 4 no. 4, pp. 424-439. Bachmann, A 2006, ‘Melting pot or tossed salad? Implications for designing effective multicultural workgroups’, Management International Review, vol. 46 no. 6, pp. 721-748. Bell, B Kozlowski, S 2002, ‘A typology of virtual teams implications for effective leadership’, Group Organisation Management, vol. 27 no.1, pp. 14-49. Bjà ¸rn, P Ngwenyama, O 2009, ‘Virtual team collaboration: building shared me aning, resolving breakdowns and creating translucence’, Information Systems Journal, vol.19 no. 3, pp. 227-253. Bradley, E, Curry, L Devers, K 2007, ‘Qualitative data analysis for health services research: developing taxonomy, themes, and theory’, Health services research, vol. 42 no. 4, pp. 1758-1772. Capece, G Costa, R 2009, ‘Measuring knowledge creation in virtual teams through the social network analysis’, Knowledge Management Research Practice, vol. 7 no. 4, pp. 329-338. Carte, T Deines, S 2013, ‘Conflict, Leadership, and Performance: What Virtual Team Members Need to Know’, Proceedings of the Americas Conference on Information Systems, vol. 2 no. 1, pp. 851-860. Carter, D, Seely, P, Dagosta, J, DeChurch, L Zaccaro, S 2015, Leadership for Global Virtual Teams: Facilitating Teamwork Processes, Springer, New York, NY. Chen, T, Chen, Y Chu, H 2008, ‘Developing a trust evaluation method between co-workers in virtual project team for enabling resource sharing and collaboration’, Computers in Industry, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 565-579. Cheshin, A, Kim, Y, Bos Nathan, D, Ning, N Olson, J 2013, ‘Emergence of differing electronic communication norms within partially distributed teams’, Journal of Personnel Psychology, vol. 12 no. 1, pp. 7. Cifuentes, L Murphy, K 2000, ‘Promoting multicultural understanding and positive self-concept through a distance learning community: Cultural connections’, Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 48 no. 1, pp. 69-83. Cooper, D Emory, D 2002, Business Research Methods, Richard D. Irwin, Chicago. Creswell, J 2013, Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, Sage, London. Davis, N, Fletcher, J Absalom, I 2010, E-learning, mixed mode and distance learning for adult literacy, language and numeracy: A case study of a polytechnic, Wellington, New Zealand. Dekker, D, Rutte, C Van den Berg, P 2008, Ã¢â‚¬Ë œCultural differences in the perception of critical interaction behaviours in global virtual teams’, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, vol. 32 no. 5, pp. 441-452. Earley, C Mosakowski, E 2000, ‘Creating hybrid team cultures: An empirical test of transnational team functioning’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 43 no. 1, pp. 26-49. Erez, M 2010, ‘Culture and job design’, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, vol. 31 no. 3, pp. 389-400. Gazor, H 2012, ‘A Literature Review on Challenges of Virtual Teams Leadership’, Journal of Sociological Research, vol. 3 no. 2, pp. 134. Geister, S, Konradt, U Hertel, G 2006, ‘Effects of process feedback on motivation, satisfaction, and performance in virtual teams’, Small group research, vol. 37 no. 5, pp. 459-489. Holton, J 2001, Building trust and collaboration in a virtual team, Team performance management: an international journal, vol. 7 no. 3, pp. 36-47. Huang, R, Kah ai, S Jestice, R 2010, ‘The contingent effects of leadership on team collaboration in virtual teams’, Computers in Human Behaviour, vol. 26 no. 5, pp. 1098-1110. Hunsaker, P Hunsaker, J 2008, ‘Virtual teams: a leaders guide’, Team Performance Management: An International Journal, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 86-101. Jarvenpaa, S, Shaw, T Staples, D 2004, ‘Toward contextualised theories of trust: The role of trust in global virtual teams’, Information systems research, vol. 15 no. 3, pp. 250-267. Kayworth, T Leidner, D 2002, ‘Leadership effectiveness in global virtual teams’, Journal of Management Information Systems, vol. 18 no. 3, pp. 7-40. Keller, J 2008, ‘First principles of motivation to learn and e3†learning’, Distance Education, vol. 29 no. 2, pp. 175-185. Lockwood, J 2015, ‘Virtual team management: what is causing communication breakdown?’, Language and Intercultural Communication, vol. 15 no. 1, p p. 125-140. Mahoney, J 2010, ‘After KKV: The new methodology of qualitative research’, World Politics, vol. 62 no. 1, pp. 120-147. Malhotra, A Majchrzak, A 2004, ‘Enabling knowledge creation in far-flung teams: best practices for IT support and knowledge sharing’, Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 8 no. 4, pp. 75-88. McArdle, B Anderson, M 2001, ‘Fitting multivariate models to community data: a comment on distance-based redundancy analysis’, Ecology, vol. 82 no. 1, pp. 290-297. Miller, T, Birch, M, Mauthner, M Jessop, J 2012, Ethics in qualitative research, Sage, Newcastle, UK. Miloslavic, S, Wildman, J Thayer, A 2015, Structuring Successful Global Virtual Teams, Springer, New York, NY. Moore, J, Dickson-Deane, C Galyen, K 2011, e-Learning, online learning, and distance learning environments: Are they the same?, The Internet and Higher Education, vol.14 no.2, pp.129–135 Nash, A Kallenbach, S 2009, Making it worth the stay: Find ings from the New England Adult Learner Persistence Project, New England Literacy Resource Center, Boston, MA. Overton, L, Hills, H Dixon, G 2007, Towards maturity: Looking at the impact of effective communication in the workplace, e-Skills, London, UK. Piccoli, G, Powell, A Ives, B 2004, ‘Virtual teams: team control structure, work processes, and team effectiveness’, Information Technology People, vol. 17 no. 4, pp. 359-379. Punch, K 2013, Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches, Sage, London. Rawbone, R 2015, ‘Doing a Successful Research Project- Using Qualitative or Quantitative Methods’, Occupational Medicine, vol. 65 no. 2, pp. 169-170. Scott, C Wildman, J 2015, Culture, Communication, and Conflict: A Review of the Global Virtual Team Literature, Springer, New York, NY. Shachaf, P Hara, N 2006, ‘Team Effectiveness in Virtual Environments: An Ecological Approach’, Teaching and Learning with Virtual Team s, vol. 1 no. 1, pp. 83-108. Siebdrat, F, Hoegl, M Ernst, H 2009, ‘How to manage virtual teams’, MIT Sloan Management Review, vol. 50 no. 4, pp. 63-68. Song, Z Liu, W 2013, ‘The challenge of wide application of information and communication technologies to traditional location theory’, Journal of Geographical Sciences, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 315-330. Stahl, G, Mkel, K, Zander, L Maznevski, M 2010, ‘A look at the bright side of multicultural team diversity’, Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 26 no. 4, pp. 439-447. Stahl, G, Maznevski, M, Voigt, A Jonsen, K 2010, ‘Unraveling the effects of cultural diversity in teams: A meta-analysis of research on multicultural work groups’, Journal of international business studies, vol. 41 no. 4, pp. 690-709. Taha, Z, Ahmed, S Ale Ebrahim, N 2009, ‘Virtual teams: a literature review’, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, vol. 3 no. 1, pp. 3. United Nations Econom ic and Social Council 2006, Bridging the Technology Gap Between and Within Nations, https://unctad.org/en/docs/ecn162006d2_en.pdf. Wagner, D Kozma, R 2005, New technologies for literacy and adult education: A global perspective, UNESCO, Paris. Whatley, J, Zaitseva, E Zakrzewska, D 2009, ‘Student Motivation in International Collaboration: To Participate or Not to Participate?’, Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, vol. 3 no. 1, pp. 1699-1718. Wildman, J Griffith, R 2015, Leading Global Teams Means Dealing with Different, Springer New York. Yip, G Dempster, A 2005, ‘Using the internet to enhance global strategy’, European Management Journal, vol. 23 no. 1, pp. 1-13. Zakaria, N, Amelinckx, A Wilemon, D 2004, ‘Working together apart? Building a knowledge†sharing culture for global virtual teams’, Creativity and innovation management, vol. 13 no. 1, pp. 15-29.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Network Foundation within Office Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Network Foundation within Office - Assignment Example This essay explores the software application purchase. General application software can be Microsoft Office 2010 as it includes wax viewer, work processing software, presentation software, and spreadsheet software etc. Microsoft application software comes with authorized registration that will allow different features for quick office use. Wi-Fi connections are very important but with the advanced smartphones, office work can be accessible. Smartphones with IOS technology such as HTC phones, Nokia, and iPhone etc. can be used as backup computers to stay connected to the main office server. Internet connectivity is also allowed by the telecom subscriptions available with the phones. Installation of computers, application software,  and antivirus can be installed and maintained by the company from where the computers will be purchased. These computers will be under guarantee. Also, automatic updates can be installed by the computers because it is an easy and two-step process.

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Mobile device policy in healthcare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mobile device policy in healthcare - Essay Example The PHI usually contains detailed information of patients including social security codes, identification details, residential, email and physical addresses, vehicle identifiers, certificates and license numbers, and biometric identifiers (HIPPA, 2015). It is because of containing such information that PHI deserves treatment and handling with highest possible security to protect privacy. Clinical practitioners in the outpatient surgery center have the on-work privileges to use PHI. Practitioners will use mobile devices to access the PHI of patients only when within the surgery center. No person will carry the mobile device out of the premises of the surgery center. Every practitioner shall bear full responsibilities in case of physical damage of the mobile devices with PHI. The PHI of every patient has unique security preferences, and clinical practitioners should consult patients where access of critical information has restrictions. No practitioner shall plug any foreign device except chargers into the PHI mobile devices. After every use, clinical practitioners should ensure to log out the PHI accounts accessed. 4. The devices shall have a central management point with internal networking limited within the surgery center. Exchange of information can only happen via the central management point (American Bar Association, 2015). HealthIT. Gov. (2014). Your Mobile Device and Health Information Privacy and Security. Retrieved March 4, 2015 from:

Sunday, November 17, 2019

HPV Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

HPV - Essay Example Furthermore, by making the vaccine mandatory in public schools, it will be possible to immunize a large number of women and girls against HPV infection. School mandates are known to be huge public health successes and compliance rates for vaccines are often high when they are made mandatory in schools (Young, 2009). School mandates especially for vaccinations in the adolescent population have been very successful because otherwise there is poor compliance with routine vaccination among those in this age range (Young, 2009). HPV vaccination in public schools will therefore ensure that a large number of youth are immunized without the stigma associated with the vaccine. HPV vaccine is shown to prevent cervical cancer in women. The Cervarix vaccine protects against two cancer causing strains, namely HPV 16 and HPV 18 that are known to be responsible for 70% of the cases of cervical cancer (Donahou, 2013; immunizationinfo.org, 2008). The Gardasil vaccine protects against HPV types 16, 18, 6 and 11 (Donahou, 2013). The HPV vaccine works best before the individual is infected with the virus. The vaccine is rendered useless when administered to a woman already infected with the HPV vaccine strain because it cannot confer protection to a previously infected individual. Because the virus spreads through sexual intercourse, it is best for the vaccination to be administered before the initiation of sexual activity. Administration of the vaccine in public schools is thus beneficial because statistics suggest a large number of school going students engage in sexual behavior by the end of high school (immunizationinfo.org, 2008). Some contend that introducing the vaccine in public schools will promote sexual behavior among school students (immunizationinfo.org, 2008). Pro-abstinence groups and social conservatives argue that vaccinating youth in schools against HPV vaccine sends out a â€Å"subtle message condoning sexual

Friday, November 15, 2019

Analysis of SSR Sequences in Rice

Analysis of SSR Sequences in Rice 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Plant Material Total of twenty one introgression lines carrying African rice genes and its parent lines were used in this study (table 1) 3.2. Methods 3.2.1. DNA extraction Genomic DNA was extracted from young leaves of the seedlings grown in fields of Huazhong Agricutural University, Wuhan, China. Method used was according to Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) method reported by Xu et al. (2011), but with some improvements. Preparation of 1.5%CTAB buffer CTAB 3.0g 1M Tris pH8.0 15.0ml 0.5M EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), pH8.0 6.0ml NaCl 12.28g dd H2O 200.0ml PVP40Mw40, 000 1.0g Tris-base buffer to make sure pH=8 Two gram of fresh or frozen leaf tissue was ground to a fine powder in liquid nitrogen with a conical hand tissue grinder by using mortar and pestle. The powder was transferred to 1.5ml Eppendorf tube content 750ÃŽ ¼L of 1.5*CTAB and 25ÃŽ ¼L ÃŽ ² –mercaptoethanol. Then incubated for 1hour in a 65 ºC water bath with an interval mixing by inverting the tubes every 15min. Add 750ÃŽ ¼L of chloroform: Isoamyl alcohol (24:1) was done in a fume hood. The samples were gentle mixed by shaking for 30min in shaker at room temperature and then spin in the microfuge at 10000rpm for 10min to precipitate the cell debris. The upper aqueous phase (supernatant) was pipette and transferred into fresh eppendorf tubes. The same volume from preceding mix was put to the liquid in fresh eppendorf and the mixed shaking for 30 min in the shaker then spin in microfuge at 10000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was pipette and transferred to fresh eppendorf tubes, and then 2/3 the volume from iso-propyl alcohol 70% was added to each sample, then the samples was put in refrigerator 1 hour. After that centrifuged for 3 min with the rotational speed of 7000 rpm in 220c. After this step DNA collected on the tube sides. The supernatant was carefully discarded from the tube, DNA pellets appeared as tiny white tear drop-shaped smears on the tube sides. The pellets were washed twice with 75% ethanol, then air dried by inverting the tubes up side down over tissue paper. To re-dissolve DNA pellets 100ÃŽ ¼L of ddH2O was added to the tubes and immediately stored at –200C 3.2.2. Quality and quantity check of DNA DNA was checked for its purity and then quantified. The genomic DNA was run on 1.0% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide and photographed under UV transilluminator using Image Lab TM software Version 4.0.1. The concentrations of the pure genomic DNA as assessed by agarose gel electrophoresis were estimated on spectrophotometer ND-2000. Based on the quantification data, all the genomic DNA samples were diluted to a final concentration of 100 ng†¢ÃŽ ¼L-1 with double-distilled water (ddH2O) and stored at -20o C for further use. 3.2.3. SSR analysis 3.2.3.1. PCR amplification and agarose gel electrophoresis A total of 50 microsatellite primer pairs were used for analyzing and identification 21 genotypes and then 22 polymorphic primers were selected to provide genetic identity and assess the genetic relationships among genotypes. PCR was performed in 20 ÃŽ ¼L reactions by using Thermal cycler touchdown as described by Don, et al. (1991), with some modifications. PCR mixture component The Touchdown-PCR program: PCR products were analyzed by electrophoresis using 2.0% agarose gel in 1x Tris Acetic cid EDTA (TAE), stained with ethidium bromide solution. then gel was visualized and photographed under UV light using Image Lab TM software Version 4.0.1. The SSR markers with high polymorphism were further used in SSR fingerprinting analysis 3.2.3.2. 6% denature polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis has been used an unique analytical tool for many studies related to the identification of cultivars, species and F1 hybrids 3.2.3.2.1. Materials A. preparation of 6% PAGE for SSR analysis B. preparation of 10*TBE (Tris-borate EDTA) buffer Dissolved in 800 ml double distilled water, filtered through 0.22  µm filter paper, made up to 1000 ml. C. preparation of 40% Acrylamide d. Silver staining Preparation of silver solution 2.5g AgNO3 (Silver nitrate) 2000 ml Distilled water Then shaking well Preparation of developer solution 28g NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) 10ml HCHO (Formaldehyde) 2000 ml Distilled water 3.2.3.2.2. Method The large and short spacer glass plates, combs, and other pertinent materials were cleaned with water and completely dry. The inside of both plates were cleaned with 95% ethanol to facilitate drying. 650ÃŽ ¼L of Repel-silane was applied to long plate and spread evenly using tissue paper. 800ÃŽ ¼L of glide-acrylamide (200ÃŽ ¼L qin he gui wan + 10 ml 75% alcohol then agitate) was applied to short plate and distributed evenly using tissue paper and leaved to dry for a short time. Glass plates and sealers using clamps were assembled according to manufacturer’s instructions. 60ml of 6%PAGE, 40ÃŽ ¼L of TEMED (Tetra-methyl-ethylene-diamine), and 400ÃŽ ¼L of 10% ammonium persulfate (APS), previously stored at 40C were mixed into beaker. The gel was leaved to polymerize for about 1hr. After 1hr polymerization it was assembled in an electrophoresis unit. After cleaning the wall with 1X TBE buffer, the gel was pre-run at constant 1500w for 30 min to clean the gel and pre heat the buffer to about 60-650. 20ÃŽ ¼Lof PCR amplified product was mixed with 5ÃŽ ¼L of the loading buffer and added 5ÃŽ ¼L in each well. The electrophoresis unit was resumed and allowed to proceed at 1200w constant until loading buffer covered more than 3/4 of the distance. Finally the unit was disassembled and the gel was subjected to silver staining. Silver staining Gel was soaked for 20-30 min in staining solution with gentle shaking followed by washing in water for 3 sec. For developing color, gel was soaked in developer solution with gentle shaking until band appeared. The gel was rinsed in water for several minutes. Then the gel was air dried and visualized under normal light. 3.2.3.3. Data analysis 3.2.3.3.1. Analysis of polymorphism Unambiguous polymorphic bands were scored visually for the presence or absence of corresponding bands among the tested accessions. Stutter and background bands were excluded. Those SSR markers displaying no polymorphisms, non-specific banding patterns or without PCR products were discarded. Molecular data were prepared by scoring the SSR markers amplification profile as present or absent for each marker to generate a binary matrix. 4. RESUTS The study was designed to provide genetic identity for introgression lines carrying African rice genes by using molecular markers. Twenty one rice genotypes were used in this study (Table 1). A total of twenty two pairs of SSR primers distributed in 9 rice chromosomes were selected to analyze the twenty one genotypes. The sequence and the details of selected primers showed in table 2 4.1. Analysis of polymorphism SSR-PCR reaction system was optimized with 3% agarose gel electrophoresis and SSR markers were analysed with 6% denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Polymorphism was analysed with composited 22 pairs of SSR primers and optimized SSR-PCR system to determine the appropriate SSR markers applied in fingerprint mapping. Banding patterns generated by primer pairs RM310, RM213, RM202, and RM80 in 21 genotypes are shown in Fig 1.and Fig 3., while RM337 are shown in Fig 2. A total of 91 alleles were detected across 21 rice genotypes using 22 SSR markers. The maximum number of polymorphic alleles was 6, while the minimum number of polymorphic bands (2 alleles) was amplified with the markers RM 85, RM240. The average number of polymorphic alleles per marker was 4.1. Molecular data were ready for recording the SSR markers amplification profile as current (1) or absent (0) for each marker to create a binary matrix. The binary matrix data were analyzed through the use of the Similarity for Qualitative Data (SIMQUAL) module to generate Dice similarity coefficients [Dice LR. 1945]. The similarity coefficients were used to construct dendrograms using the Unweighted Pair Group Methods with Arithmetic means (UPGMA). 4.2. Cluster analysis The SSR markers were able to distinguish between different rice genotypes. The high degree of polymorphism of microsatellite markers allows rapid and efficient identification of rice genotypes. These markers classified the rice genotypes into eight clusters. (Fig4.) According to the results of pylogenetic tree twenty one genotypes were divided into eight groups according to the standard genetic similarity o.73. The lowest diversity was found between ILA65 and ILA78 (similarity level 98%) that strengthen the supposition of close relationship between them. While the highest diversity was found between J23B and other genotypes used in this study at similarity level 35%. These obtained results could be due to the number of SSR markers used in the study or the bias of genetic similarity estimation conducted by the UPGMA-based method. 4.3. Principal component analysis A principal component was performed using 22 SSR markers. The Values of the Eigen values and their contribution to variation are presented in Table 3. The score plot of 21 genotypes based on the first two principal components is presented in Fig 5. 4.4. Genetic similarity among Rice genotypes The Dic similarity was computed according to the obtained data from the polymorphic primers. The similarity index value obtained for each pair wise comparison among the 21 genotypes and presented in Table 4. The similarity coefficients ranged from 23.08% to 97.8% among tested genotypes. ILA 65 and ILA78 were the most similar among all the genotypes with a coefficient of 0.9780. The least similar genotypes were J23B and ILA19, ILA123 with a coefficient of 0.2308. 4.5. The fingerprints for identification The results showed the molecular identification of 21 Rice genotypes using 22 SSR polymorphic sequences. The thirteen Pair of these SSR primers were selected from the polymorphic primers which can amplify clear bands and have more alleles to identity nineteen introgression lines carrying African rice genes and three varieties. Table 5 The microsatellite assay generated cultivar-specific alleles in some of the genotypes screened; these used as DNA fingerprints for genotypes identification. This will be the assistance for the establishment and defense of proprietary rights and the determination of cultivar purity. The core SSR used to generate the fingerprint code of each used germplasm Table 6. 5. DISCUSSIONS In our study, microsatellite markers were used for investigating genetic diversity of 21 rice genotypes under study (Table 1). To this end, 22 primer pairs of microsatellite were used which had relatively high polymorphism in available literatures (Table 2). According to the previous results primer pairs will be referred to as loci and DNA bands as alleles (Sefc et al., 2000). The number of alleles obtained by microsatellite markers varied from 2 to 6 with an average of 4.1 alleles per locus. However, the average numbers of alleles detected in present study were significantly higher than this reported by JOSH et al. (2006) in non-Basmati aromatic rice genotypes of India which equals 2.6. The disparity among reports might be due to genotype number, SSR loci distribution, concerned sets of germplasm and gel electrophoresis method adopted in various studies. Higher number of alleles was found when a large number of landraces from a wide range of geographical origins were included in the study (Brondani et al., 2006). The cluster analysis, using unweighted pair group method of arithmetic means (UPGMA) was constructed for measuring genetic diversity and relatedness among the genotypes (Fig. 3). 5.1 cluster analysis based on SSR markers The similarity matrix was computed using SSR markers based on Dic’s coefficient following the UPGMA method using SHAN programme of NTSYS-pc. The Dic’s similarity coefficient for the SSR data set varied from 0.2308 to 0.9780. According to the results of phylogenetic treeà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ Figure1) Twenty one introgression lines and cultivars were divided into eight groups according to the standard genetic similarity which is 0.73. The first group ILA17, ILA13, STB, STA/F The second group ILA11 The third group ILA145, ILA21 The fourth group ILA12, ILA166, ILA1 The fifth group ILA147, ILB19, ILA172, ILA65, ILA78, ILA30, ILA29, ILA60 The sixth group ILA19 The seventh group ILA123 The eighth group J23B In group fifth we can distinguish two sub groups: sub group V-1 having ILA147, ILB19 and sub group V-2 having ILA172, ILA65, ILA78, ILA30, ILA29, and ILA60 but they were closely related groups. And five groups according to the standard genetic similarity which is 0.67. ILA17, ILA13, STB, STA/F ILA11, ILA145, ILA21, ILA12, ILA166, ILA1 ILA147, ILB19, ILA172, ILA65, ILA78, ILA30, ILA29, ILA60 ILA19, ILA123 J23B Rice genotypes clustered into eight well defined groups in accordance with their pedigree, probably due to the origin genetic of these materials, because most genotypes obtained from other genotypes and had similar pedigree. The studied Rice genotypes were showed existence of genetic diversity among 21 rice genotypes. The SSR markers played an important role in studying the germplasm diversity in rice (Yu et al., 2005). The results indicated that SSR analysis could be a better method to study the genetic diversity in rice. The highest genetic distance was found between ILA17 and J23B, where they held the first and last position of the dendrogram. On the other hand, the lowest genetic distance was found between ILA65 and ILA78 in the same group. This result consistent with the pedigree of these two ILs which shared a high proportion of ancestry (Table 1) SSR markers efficiently separated the rice genotypes into groups consistent with their origin and pedigree. Gerdes and Tracy (1994) explained that pedigree relationship can be used as an indicator to test the effectiveness of markers in determining relationships among breeding lines. Our results showed that the SSR markers were able to detect the extent of genetic diversity among rice genotypes used in this study. 5.2 Principal component analysis The principal component analysis study was also done using the subroutine EIGEN. The PCA results showed that the PC1 contributed 65.1389% followed by PC2 7.8560% and cumulative variance of first two PCA was 72.9948%. The results were close similarity of the results obtained based on unweighted pair group method with Arithmetic average (UPGMA) 5.3 similarity index A similarity matrix according to the proportion of shared SSR fragments was used to establish the level of relatedness between the tested genotypes. Pair-wise estimates of similarity ranged from 0.2308 to 0.9780 and the average similarity among all genotypes was 0.6807 (table 3.). Two genotypes ILA65 and ILA78 were the closest related genotypes with the highest similarity index of 97.8%. This was followed by 94.51% similarity between two pairs of genotypes ILA166 and ILA1. The lowest similarity (23.08%) was observed between genotypes ILA19 and J23B, ILA123 and J23B. As expected, J23B had the greatest dissimilarity with all the other tested genotypes. The similarity coefficients of J23B with all the other genotypes ranged from 0.2308 to 0.4396. It could be concluded that Simple Sequence Repeat markers could identify the different rice genotypes, and some of rice genotypes under investigation have probably originated from closely related ancestors and possess high degree of genetic sim ilarity. 5.4 DNA fingerprinting analysis Finally the thirteen pairs of SSR primers were selected from the polymorphic primers as the core set of SSRs (Table4) which could detect varying numbers of polymorphic bands. Their amplified bands were clear, legible, easy to count, and distinguishable from one another. These markers were distributed among 8 rice chromosomes. The microsatellites exhibited several bands that were shared among the check genotypes. Eight accessions (ILA123, ILA19, ILA21, ILA12, ILA145, ILA11, STA/F, STB) displayed unique bands in comparison with all other genotypes with different microsatellite markers. SSR markers analysis will help the identification and differentiation of introgression lines. The information will enable construct a DNA fingerprinting database of tested rice genotypes (Table 6). Construct a unique DNA fingerprints of the tested genotypes can distinguish each of the tested materials and provide basic guidelines for its conservation. CONCLUSION Through the present study, a total of 18 introgression lines carrying African rice genes and three Varieties were identified with specific SSR primer. DNA-based SSR markers revealed high genetic diversity among the genotypes and were able to differentiate them successfully. The similarity index values ranged from 0.2308 to 0.9780 Highest similarity (0.9780 ) observed between ILA65 and ILA78, whereas lowest similarity (0.2308) obtained between ILA19 and J23B, ILA123 and J23B. Thus, it can be inferred that more diversity was detected using SSR markers as it is evident from its similarity value. Results showed the high polymorphism and abundance of SSR sequences in rice. Total of 13 primers were selected to generate fingerprint of 21 genotypes Amany Kamel Elhabbak

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

Anne Hutchinson :: essays research papers fc

Anne Hutchinson challenged the traditional role of women in the Puritan society through her opposing religious beliefs. Anne Hutchinson was most likely not the first woman to have her own thoughts. She was simply the first to act on them. Anne Hutchinson was born on or about July17, 1591 in Alford, Licolnshire, England. She was the daughter of Reverend Francis Marbury. Rev. Marbury spoke out that many of the ordained ministers in the Church of England were unfit to guide people's souls. For this act of defiance, he was put in jail for one year. Anne read many of her father's books on theology and religion. Much of Anne's independence and willingness to speak out was due to her father's example. Anne admired her father for his defiance of traditional church principles. Then in 1612 she married William Hutchinson. Together they had 15 children. In 1634 she and her husband moved to Boston. Here Anne began holding informal church meetings in her home discussing the pastor's services and also preaching her beliefs to her followers. Threatened by meetings she held in her Boston home, the clergy charged Hutchinson with hersey. An outspoken female in a male hierarchy, Hutchinson had little hope that many would speak in her defense, and she was being tried by the General Court. In 1636 she was charged with hersey and banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony. Several years later when she moved to New York she was killed in an Indian attack. Anne challenged the Puritan clergy. She believed that: "1.One can feel one's salvation and is filled with the spirit of God after conversion. 2.One needn't be learned in the Bible or in the Puritan writers in order to be saved. 3.The ministers are all under the covenant of works, except John Cotton, who is under the covenant of grace.4. Inner light is the guarantee of salvation.5. All responsibility for salvation is placed on Christ. 6.Every person has the ear of God if only he or she would ask for it, and listen to the answer. 7. Indian slavery is wrong - people of all skin colors are of one blood. 8.Sunday shouldn't be set aside as the Lord's Day because every day is the Lord's day. 9.Christians will have new bodies when they get to heaven.10.Predestination is unfounded.11.Prayers should not be memorized, but inspired by love for God, waiting on Him.12.Holy Spirit dwells within each Christian like a personal union.

Sunday, November 10, 2019

Slaughterhouse-Five and Beloved

The modern human attitude is largely framed by the philosophy of science, in America. According to this philosophy the world is governed by the fixed laws of physics, through which humans find intellectual enlightenment. In this world of science, knowledge is power, and this power renders humans more able to shape their destiny. The American ideal of the self-made individual, (although usually vouched in the terms of religion), is structured upon this science based premise. But a contradiction lies at the heart of this blending of scientific philosophy and individual identity.It is that a physically and scientifically determined universe does not allow for free will. The modern headlong march towards scientific utopia thus carries grave peril because a philosophy that denies the inexorable human desire for free will ultimately is not self-sustaining. It is as if people are surrendering to destiny at the price of believing that the will is empowered by science. It recalls Franklin Roo sevelt’s memorable comment that â€Å"freedom cannot be bestowed; it must be achieved† (qtd. in Singh 143). This crucial issue is dealt with by Kurt Vonnegut in his novel Slaughterhouse-Five.Although many readers view Vonnegut’s novel as advocating fatalism, the opposite is true. Billy Pilgrim, the novel’s protagonist, clearly advocates that humans must overcome fatalism in order to restore free will and sustain forward movement. Toni Morrison, in her novel Beloved, suggests that humans also should overcome the fixity of time. To move forward, both Sethe and Paul D must learn to redefine themselves by psychologically releasing themselves from the physical chains of their previous slavery. The central message of both authors is that there is no looking back. A vigorous free will must always look forward.Sociological and psychological factors may be challenges, but they are not impediments to the free will. The only such barriers are those that exist within humans. The crucial factor is the orientation of people’s vision. Both texts stress the importance of escaping the grip of the past by focusing on the future, and thus are aimed at nourishing hope. The guiding motif in this analysis is thus time. The novels can also be read as reminders of the American ideal, and what it means to be a successful American in the modern era. The American outlook has always resisted historicity.Its orientation is to leave the old world behind and focus on the forging of the new. But modern Americans are surrendering to historicity once more, and thereby squandering their freedom. By chasing synthetic and materialistic dreams (which is merely slavery to past success), we lose our moral orientation, and this is a failure of the American ideal. If we hope to recover from this decadence we must re-establish our freedom, which should be in the spirit of Emerson’s â€Å"nonconformism†. The novel Slaughterhouse-Five is intensely personal to Kurt Vonnegut, though Billy Pilgrim is not necessarily the alter ego of the author.He draws on his experience of having fought in the Second World War, been taken prisoner, and surviving the blanket firebombing of Dresden. He survived by being trapped as a prisoner-of-war in an underground locker of a slaughterhouse, and emerged a few days later to apprehend the charred desolation. In the novel, Billy Pilgrim goes through the same experience which turns out to be the defining moment of his existence. He has become â€Å"unstuck in time† through his experience of this event, meaning that the flow of time does not effect him anymore, and that he can shift at will from one moment in time to another.He experiences only episodes, in random order, and over and over again, but they always refer back to the Dresden massacre. He does not realize what is happening until much later, when he is abducted by alien creatures known as the Tralfamadorians. They reveal to him that free wil l is only an illusion, and because they exist in four dimensions – the fourth dimension being time – they observe past, present and future simultaneously, and the entire life as a unified whole. Time itself is indestructible, and, therefore, one lives one’s life over and over again.One only has free will to the extent that one chooses to concentrate on the better moments in life. This is the way Tralfamadorian literature is written, as one of his captors reveals to him, â€Å"There isn’t any particular relationship between the messages, except that the author has chosen them carefully, so that, when seen all at once, they produce an image of life that is beautiful and surprising and deep. There is no beginning, no middle, no end, no suspense, no moral, no causes, no effects.What we love in our books are the depths of many marvelous moments seen all at one time (Vonnegut 88). † After this encounter, Billy is confirmed in his fatalism, and he is desc ribed as living the episodes of his life over and over again. Before his violent end in the year 1976, he reveals to the world the secret about the nature of time which he has learned from the Tralfamadorian. He does so with calm and collected purpose, because he knows beforehand that his message will be accepted.He even avoids bearing a grudge towards his own murderer, knowing that it is all fated, and that death itself is of no consequence. The vital clue that the novel as taking place frozen time is found in Vonnegut’s introduction, in which he says, â€Å"This is a novel somewhat in the telegraphic schizophrenic manner of tales of the planet Tralfamadore, where the flying saucers come from† (Ibid, title page). The tales told on that distant planet take place in static time, and by pointing out this similarity the author is acknowledging the existence of dynamic time, which the Trafalmadorians deny.Regarding this weird theory, there is ample evidence that what is to ld about the aliens is nothing more than a figment of Billy’s imagination, and that much of the novel is from the point of view of a severely disturbed mind. It is his own fixity in time which he tries to rationalize with his tales of the aliens. The description of the aliens as upside down toilet plungers is laughable, and this is a clue from the author that we are not supposed to believe in them and their outlandish concept of time.Even though Billy is portrayed as a weakling, readers should not judge his fatalism as abnormal, or his ideas about time as merely the products of an unsettled imagination. Vonnegut is passing judgment on the ethos of the human age, and readers know this because the world accepts Billy’s revelations in the end, also, because the narrative is rooted in the Second World War. This is the event that finally shatters the notion of â€Å"progress† as in the eighteenth century Enlightenment.The consequence of the two world wars is the para lysis of cultural will, and this is captured through Billy’s fantastic notion of time, also rooted in the Second World War. Billy’s particular circumstance, allied with his curious nature, allows him to come to vital understanding that he lives in an age of stagnancy. But even though the novel is mainly concerned with depicting the human age, there are also enough clues that point to the way out of this nightmare. For example, Vonnegut, in his own character in the novel, talks about its composition to his publisher in Chapter 1, and says, â€Å"People aren’t supposed to look back.I’m certainly not going to do it anymore. I’ve finished my war book now. The next one I write is going to be fun. This one is a failure, and had to be, since it was written by a pillar of salt (28). † Whatever deep secrets it conveys, the novel is declared to be a failure, and Vonnegut admits that he too is subject to frozen time in writing such a novel, describing himself as â€Å"a pillar of salt†. The reference in to Lot’s wife, who is described in Genesis as turning into a pillar of salt because she chose to look back with attachment to the incinerating city of Sodom. Looking back is made to be the most fatal destroyer of the will.So he promises he will not do it again, and his subsequent novels will be situated in dynamic time. For Vonnegut, hope resides in leaving the past behind. Toni Morrison delivers the same message in a very different context. Slavery is an integral part of the birth of the American nation. It is now universally admitted to have been a cruel institution. But, as E H Carr puts it, history is only â€Å"the key to the understanding of the present† (14). It is very difficult for us to empathize with the motivations of the slave-owners, and any effort in this direction is bound to be controversial.But in her novel Beloved, Morrison is not intent on giving the reader further history, or even a commen tary of history. The advocacy is clear, that humans should leave history behind. Sethe is a former slave, now living out her freedom with her teenage daughter Denver, and recently having admitted another former slave Paul D as her partner. She is trying to suppress her horrific past, but the arrival of Paul D brings it back to her. Once, when fleeing from her sadistic owner, she had murdered her 2 year old daughter, thinking that capture was inevitable, and she did not want her children to suffer slavery.Soon after the arrival of Paul D, the embodied spirit of her murdered daughter appears, calling herself Beloved. Her appearance brings new life into all that come in contact with her, because she infuses tension into their lives, by which they must react. She becomes a demanding presence in the household, and Sethe finds herself at her beck and call. The shy and retiring Denver find herself forced out of the household and in the process acquires maturity. Even Paul D learns to open up his â€Å"rusted tin tobacco box† of a heart in her presence. In the end she disappears just as suddenly, and all the tensions are at once relieved.But she has touched lives in such a way that in her aftermath they are all restored to life and hope. Beloved clearly represents a horrible past, and one which must be dealt with finally. Even traces of the tale itself must not be left behind, and so the novel ends, â€Å"This is not a story to pass on† (Morrison 324). The past must be completely extinguished, and once this has been done, there is the possibility of shaping one’s destiny through the exercise of free will. These novels by Vonnegut and Morrison raise the issue of what it means to be successful in America today.Traditionally, historicity had been part of the old world, and that which the new world tries to leave behind. But these novels suggest that historicity has certainly caught up with modern America, and is the root to modern decadence. But to r eview the exhortations of the greatest Americans of the past is only to confirm that the nation was established on the basis of freedom, and freedom necessarily entails the letting go of the past. In the early period of the Puritan fathers the message use to be couched in terms of religion, and which we may detect in the sermons of Jonathan Edwards.In his speech â€Å"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God† there is no reference to anything in the past. It is entirely aimed at striking terror in the heart of the sinners, by evoking the visions of the hell that awaits them, laced with such warnings as: â€Å"There is nothing that keeps wicked men, at any moment, out of hell, but the mere pleasure of God† (Edwards 90). Edwards relies on the immediacy of his message, and thereby strikes a particularly American note. The calm transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson may seem to be at a polar opposite, yet projects the same obligation to freedom.In his essay â€Å"Natureâ₠¬  he says, â€Å"Our age is retrospective. It builds the sepulchers of the fathers. It writes biographies, histories, and criticism. The foregoing generations beheld God and nature face to face; we, through their eyes† (Emerson 181). Writing in the middle of the 19th century, he warns that the true American spirit of freedom is being quickly eroded, and will not be recovered until we relearn how to apprehend nature with immediacy. â€Å"Whoso would be a man, must be a nonconformist,† he says in his essay â€Å"Self Reliance† (Ibid 269).Any sort of conformity is compromising to the freedom, and therefore is a betrayal of the American ethos. Mark Twain conveys the same message in his classic children’s adventure story Huckleberry Finn. Set in the context of slavery and emancipation, it is more truly about the slavery of the whites than that of the blacks. Huck is fleeing from his drunken father, but he also becomes wary of the pious and benevolent reach o f society that tries to civilize him. He sets himself up on a floating raft, with an escaped slave, and only here he feels free and himself: â€Å"[T]here warn’t no home like a raft, after all.Other places do seem so cramped up and smothery, but a raft don’t. You feel mighty free and easy and comfortable on a raft† (Twain123). Huck’s suspicion towards society and civilization is the central point of the novel, and this makes him a true American. Vonnegut and Morrison would say that modern American is a betrayal of the founding spirit of the nation, where conformity to a media constructed reality in the norm. It is a historicity of a different sort which America enslaves itself to. It is as if history is rewritten by Hollywood, and such false history tends to become the worldview of the average American.The media projects crass materialism in every aspect, where fame is the highest criterion for judging worth. So, Americans not only follow the dress code o f celebrity film stars, they also follow the history and sociology of celebrity historians and sociologists. This in conformity of the most enslaving form, and represents a total loss of freedom. The judgment must be that, without the recovery of the Emersonian spirit of nonconformism there is no way out of this predicament. Americans must strive once again to succeed as human beings, and must stop chasing the fame and fortune of film stars. The crucial necessity is to recover free will.Both Vonnegut and Morrison bring the message that the barriers to the exercise of free will lie not in external conditions, but within each human being. If people believe that they lie with social, psychological or emotional factors, then they subscribe to the thinking of the Enlightenment, which believed that a scientific approach to understanding external conditions will result in their gradual removal, and generally in the direction of utopia. Vonnegut intends to explode this myth, and tells reade rs that such determinism renders the free will paralyzed, and he depicts the modern world as having met this unacceptable end.Like Morrison does in her novel Beloved, Vonnegut advocates that humans must overcome the past if they hope to exercise control over their future. Morrison’s specific concern is the fixity of Black America in the past of slavery, but she is in fact addressing a wider malaise in America as a whole. The common message is that slavery to the past is destructive to the free will, and therefore disastrous to the American ideal. Works Cited Carr, E. H. What is History? New York: Penguin Books, 1967. Edwards, Jonathan. A Jonathan Edwards Reader. Eds.John Edwin Smith, Harry S. Stout. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Selected Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Eds. William H. Gilman, Charles Johnson. New York: Signet Classic, 2003. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York: Vintage International, 2004. Singh, M. P. Quote Unquote. Twin Lakes, WI: Lotus Press, 2007. Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. New York: Signet Classic, 2002. Vonnegut, Kurt. Slaughterhouse-five, Or, the Children's Crusade: A Duty-dance With Death. New York: Dell, 1969.

Friday, November 8, 2019

How to Get a Full Ride Scholarship 5 Key Tips

How to Get a Full Ride Scholarship 5 Key Tips SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips College is a huge investment - you spend a lot of time, energy, and money to earn a degree. Graduating from school means making financial sacrifices, but it also means reaping significant educational and professional rewards. But what if the whole money problem wasn’t an issue? What if you could go to school without worrying about tuition expenses or accruing interest? With a full ride scholarship, all your college costs are taken care of. Instead of thinking about paying your bills, you could focus on the important things: studying for that big exam or getting your term paper in on time. Here, I’ll lay out everything you need to know about how to get a full ride scholarship: what exactlyitis, who can get one, and where you can find them. What Is a Full Ride Scholarship? If you’ve already done your research on what college will cost, you’ll know that tuition isn’t the only expense you’ll be responsible for - you’ll also have to budget for room, board, fees, textbooks, transportation, and personal expenses. The amount of all of these expenses together is called the Cost of Attendance, or CoA. Depending on where you go to school, the CoA can come to over $200,000 for a bachelor’s degree. (For more information on college expenses, check out our guide to college costs). Full ride scholarships are special because they fully cover all college-related costs, meaning they pay for the entire CoA. A traditional â€Å"scholarship† is awarded based on merit, not on financial need - this means that a student could win a full ride award even if her family isn’t low-income. There are other avenues to getting a full ride beyondjust traditional scholarship programs, however. Free money is free money, whether you’re getting it based on merit or financial need, so in this post, I’ll address other ways to get your CoA covered besides the private scholarship route. The best strategy for how to geta full ride scholarship (and get all of your expenses covered) is to take a multi-pronged approach, applying toall of the following: Private scholarship programs (both merit- and need-based) Institutional need-based financial aid Institutional merit-based scholarships Private Full Ride Scholarship Awards Full ridescholarships seem almost too good to be true - how could you get all of your college costs covered, regardless of your family’s financial need? These sorts of scholarship programs do exist, but as you might imagine, they're not exactly common.Fewer than 20,000 students per year will earn a private full-ride scholarship award - that may sound like a lot, but consider that over 20 million students are expected to attend college this fall (so about 0.1% of students, or one in 1000, get full-ride scholarships). Because these scholarships are so competitive, there will be many qualified applicants who won’t end up with funding. This should not discourage you from applying, but don’t pin your hopes on any one of these awards - you should have solid backup plans if you're set on securing outside funding (I’ll address that later). Now for some good news: if you were worried about spending a bunch of time researching different scholarship programs, don’t be! We have some great guides on the top scholarship programs out there. Start off with our post on some of the best full ride scholarships, and then check out our guides to top scholarships for high school juniors and high school seniors. Full Ride Scholarships From Schools Kill two birds with one stone: get into a college and get a full ride with one application. Some schools will cover their own CoAs if you’re a particularly attractive applicant or have high financial need. To get a full scholarshipfrom any school, though, you'll have to be a very compelling applicant - either competitive enough to earn merit-based awards or academically strong enough to get into a top-ranked school. Here's some more information about merit-based and need-basedfull ride scholarships from schools. Schools That Offer Full Rides Based on Merit Traditional scholarship awards are based on merit, not necessarily on financial need. Some schools use scholarship awards to attract strong applicants regardless of their family’s financial situation. Top colleges don’t generally offer merit scholarships because they don’t have to attract competitive applicants (the applicant pool is already really strong). We have a list of 79 colleges that offer full ride scholarships - you may not be very familiar with the schools on this list, but if you’re academically or athletically strong with low financial need they may be good options for you. Schools That Offer Full Rides Based onFinancial Need Some of the best financial aid programs out there are at some of the most competitive schools - like Harvard, for example. Some schools have very generous financial aid programs that will cover the entire CoA for students with high financial need. Most schools with these types of programs are top private colleges. If you have high financial need and want to get a full ride from one of these top colleges,you'll have to focus your energy on getting in. For a list of schools with these generous aid policies, check out our guide to colleges with the best financial aid. Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in. 5 Steps to Winning a Full Ride Scholarship Now that you know wheretoget full ride scholarships, you'll want to know how to get a full ride scholarship. The following strategies will help you get an award no matter the funding source. In general, the things you can do to make yourself a strong college applicant will also make you a strong full ride scholarship candidate.If you’re a strong college applicant, you’ll also increase your chances of getting merit-based scholarships from schools. Finally, you’ll also be more competitive at top colleges that give generous need-based aid. This strategy guide will walk you through steps you can take to increase your chances of funding across the board. Your should start preparing forscholarship applications early - think Day 1 of your freshman year of high school. Scholarship programs and admissions officers evaluate applicants on many factors, most of which can’t be worked on at the last minute. To optimize your chances of winning a full scholarship award, you should be close to the top of your class with a strong background in leadership and community service. You should also have strong relationships with instructors and mentors who can write you glowing letters of recommendation. Finally, you should have a concrete plan in place so that you can get all application requirements in on time. There may be a lot of boxes to check, but this guide will help you get everything in order. Demonstrate Academic Excellence This isn’t just about a high GPA - it’s also about taking challenging courses. In order tostand out in a positive way, take as many advanced or AP classes as possible. If you're struggling in a particular subject (everyone has weaknesses), seek out extra help from teachers so that your grades don't suffer. If you're gunning for a truly excellent academic performance, aim for the top 10% of your class rankings. If you have your eye on some of the most famous full scholarships (like the Gates Millennium) you’ll likely need to be at the very top of your class to be a competitive applicant. Develop Leadership Skills Private scholarship committees, in particular, want to invest in future leadersand give awards to students whom they anticipate will go on to be successful in business, politics, academia, etc. The only way scholarship committees can evaluate future leadership potential is by looking at your past experience. In order to develop your own leadership skills, be an active classroom participant (teachers will be able to speak to your leadership potential in letters of recommendation). Raise your hand, volunteer to lead projects or groups, and help other students if possible. Join extracurricular groups, but focus on quality over quantity - choose clubs or activities that you'll stick with long-term. This will lead to more opportunities to move up to club officer or team captain roles. If there aren't many activities at school that spark your interest, look into starting your own club, activity, or charity. Invest in Community Service Private scholarship programs and schools alike want to invest in students who will â€Å"pay it forward† or students who will do good in the world. Show funding sources that you’re this type of person with a history of community service. Like with clubs and other extracurriculars, quality is more important than quantity. Try to pick something that you’re interested in early on and stick with it. Regular weekly participation is ideal.If you want ideas onwhere to start building volunteer experience, start with our guide on the nine best places to do community service work. Develop Relationships With Mentors and Instructors This step is important for a couple of reasons: It’s valuable to have mentors who can offer you trusted professional, personal, and academic advice. You should have people on your side who are willing to write strong letters of recommendation. Begin building these relationships by showing respect for your class, sports team, club,or activity. Show potential mentors and instructors that you are willing and able to actively participate. Follow up byseeingleaders for extra help and showing interest in the relevant subject area. We all need someone to go to when we have questions. Plan Ahead You’ll have quite a few deadlines to keep track of for both college and scholarship applications. Unfortunately, scholarship application deadlinescan be all over the place.Many of the top scholarships have deadlines early in your senior year, so prepare a list of scholarship programs that you want to apply to by the end of your junior year. It’s also important to give yourself enough time to complete applications, especially if you have to submit personal statements or essays. Also, keep in mind thatif you have to submit letters of recommendation, you should provide 10-12 weeks advance notice for letter-writers. What You Should Do If You Don't Think You'll Get a Full Ride Scholarship Let’s say you’re a good student, but you don’t think you’ll qualify for a full ride scholarship. Maybe you'renot academically strong enough to win a top merit-based scholarship or get into a top-ranked college, but you also don't demonstrateenough financial need to qualify for much aid. What are your next steps? A full ride is still a full ride even if it’s patch-workedtogether through multiple funding sources. Here are some things you can do to come up with a full ride: Apply broadly to many scholarship programs. This is essentially a numbers game: the more programs you apply to, the better your chances of winning one (or more) scholarships. Do some research into more targeted or local scholarship programs. Smaller scholarships may be less competitive than the big full ride programs. Focus on following the advice above on how to geta full ride scholarship. Even if you don't think you'll win a big award, building your skills, resume, and grades will give your funding chances a nice boost. What's Next? Private scholarships and institutional aid are great, but the backbone of college fundingoften comes in the form of federal aid. Learn more about the Pell Grant, Perkins loan, Direct Subsidized loan, and Direct Unsubsidized loan. Are you looking at full ride scholarships because you want to get through college debt-free? Read more about how to pay for college without taking out loans. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: